Q.1Where was the earliest kind
of print technology developed?
The earliest kind of print technology was developed in China, Japan and
Korea.—
Q2. Briefly describe the
earliest kind of print technology that developed in the world.
The earliest kind of print
technology was based on manual labourie hand printin From AD 594 onwards, books in China were
printed by rubbing paper – also invented— there – against the inked surface of woodblocks. As both sides of the thin, porous sheet could
not be printed, the traditional Chinese— ‘accordion book’ was folded and stitched at the side. Superbly skilled craftsmen could duplicate,
with remarkable accuracy, the beauty of— calligraphy.
Q4. What is Calligraphy?
The art of beautiful and
stylized writing is known as Calligraphy
Q5. Which country was the major
producer of printed material? Why?
The imperial state in China was, for a very
long time, the major producer of printed— material. HUGE BUREAUCRATIC SYSTEM China possessed a huge bureaucratic system
which recruited its personnel through civil— service examinations. PRINTING OF TEXTBOOKS Textbooks for this examination were printed in
vast numbers under the sponsorship of— the imperial state. INCREASE IN THE NUMBER OF CANDIDATES From the sixteenth century, the number of
examination candidates went up and that— increased the volume of print. China – Printing of Books
Q6 How did the uses of print
diversify in China ?
By the seventeenth century, as urban culture
bloomed in China, the uses of print— diversified. Print was no longer used just by scholar officials TO
COLLECT TRADE INFORMATION Merchants used
print in their everyday life, as they collected trade information.— READING Reading increasingly became a leisure
activity.— The new
readership preferred fictional narratives, poetry, autobiographies, anthologies
of— literary masterpieces, and romantic plays. PUBLISHING
Rich women began to read, and many women
began publishing their poetry and plays.— Wives of scholar-officials
published their works and courtesans wrote about their lives.— Western
printing techniques and mechanical presses were imported in the late nineteenth— century as Western powers established their outposts in China.— Shanghai
became the hub of the new print culture, catering to the Western-style schools.— From hand
printing there was now a gradual shift to mechanical printing.— Print in Japan
Q7.Who introduced print in Japan ?
Buddhist missionaries from China introduced
hand-printing technology into Japan around— AD 768-770.
Q8 Name the oldest book to be printed in Japan.
The oldest Japanese book, printed in AD 868,
is the Buddhist Diamond Sutra, containing— six sheets of text and woodcut illustrations. Briefly describe the
various kinds of print used in Japan. Pictures were printed on textiles, playing
cards and paper money.— In medieval Japan, poets and prose writers
were regularly published, and books were— cheap and abundant.
Q.9 What were the interesting publishing practices
of the late 18th century?
Printing of
visual material led to interesting publishing practices.— In the late
eighteenth century, in the flourishing urban circles at Edo (later to be known
as— Tokyo), illustrated collections of paintings depicted
an elegant urban culture, involving artists, courtesans, and teahouse
gatherings. Libraries and bookstores
were packed with hand-printed material of various types –— books on women, musical instruments, calculations,
tea ceremony, flower arrangements, proper etiquette, cooking and famous places.
PRINT CULTURE IN EUROPE
Q.10 What were the factors that helped the rise of
print culture in Europe?
In the eleventh
century, Chinese paper reached Europe via the silk route.— Paper made
possible the production of manuscripts, carefully written by scribes.— Then, in 1295,
Marco Polo, a great explorer, returned to Italy after many years of— exploration in China. China already had the
technology of woodblock printing. Marco Polo brought this knowledge back with
him. Now Italians began producing books
with woodblocks, and soon the technology spread to— other parts of Europe. Luxury editions were still handwritten on very
expensive vellum, meant for aristocratic— circles and rich monastic libraries which scoffed at printed books as
cheap vulgarities. Merchants and
students in the university towns bought the cheaper printed copies.—
Q11. What is vellum?
A parchment made from the skins
of animals.
Q12 How were luxury editions in Europe printed ?
Luxury editions
were handwritten on very expensive vellum meant for aristocratic people and
rich monastic libraries.
Q13 Who were the people who brought cheaper copies?
Merchants and students in the university towns bought cheaper printed copies.
Demand For Books
Q14 What steps were taken by the booksellers to meet the
increasing demand for books?
As the
demand for books increased, booksellers all over Europe began exporting books
to— many different countries. Book fairs were held at
different places. Production of
handwritten manuscripts was also organised in new ways to meet the— expanded demand. Scribes or skilled handwriters were no longer
solely employed by wealthy or influential— patrons but increasingly by booksellers as well. More than 50 scribes
often worked for one bookseller.
Q.15 What were the limitations of Manuscripts?
The production of handwritten
manuscripts could not satisfy the ever-increasing demand— for books. Copying was an expensive, laborious and
time-consuming business.— Manuscripts were fragile, awkward to handle,
and could not be carried around or read— easily. Their circulation
remained limited. With the growing demand for books,woodblock printing gradually became more and more
popular. By the early fifteenth century,
woodblocks were being widely used in Europe.
Q16. Explain the term Print Revolution.
The shift from hand
printing to mechanical printing led to the print revolution after he invention
of the printing press by Gutenberg
Q17. Which was the first book to be printed
by Gutenberg?
The first book he printed was the Bible. About 180 copies were
printed and it took three years to produce them. By the standards of the time
this was fast production.
Q18 Write a short note on Gutenberg.
Gutenberg was the son of a merchant and grew
up on a large agricultural estate. From his— childhood he had seen wine and olive presses. Subsequently, he learnt the art of polishing
stones, became a master goldsmith, and also— acquired the expertise to create lead moulds used for making trinkets.
Gutenberg adapted existing technology to
design his innovation.— The olive press provided the model for the
printing press, and moulds were used for— casting the metal types for the letters of the alphabet. By 1448, Gutenberg perfected the system. The
first book he printed was the Bible. About— 180 copies were printed and it took three years to produce them. By
the standards of the time this was fast production.
Q.19 What were the features
of the printed books ?
Printed books at
first closely resembled the written manuscripts in appearance and layout.— The metal
letters imitated the ornamental handwritten styles.— Borders were
illuminated by hand with foliage and other patterns, and illustrations were— painted. In
the books printed for the rich, space for decoration was kept blank on the
printed page.— Each purchaser could
choose the design and decide on the painting school that would do the
illustrations. This shift from hand
printing to mechanical printing led to the print revolution.—
Q20 What was the impact of the print revolution in
Europe?
A new way of producing books; it transformed the lives of people,
changing their relationship to information and knowledge, and with institutions
and authorities. It influenced popular perceptions and opened up new ways of
looking at things
1. EMERGENCE OF A NEW READING PUBLIc
Printing reduced the cost of books. The time
and labour required to produce each book— came down, and multiple copies could be produced with greater ease. Books flooded the market, reaching out to an
ever-growing readership.—
2. EMERGENCE OF A
HEARING PUBLIC
Earlier books could be read by only a small number of people
particularly the elite as the number of literates in Europe was very low till
the 20 th century Publishers started
publishing popular ballads folk tales with beautiful pictures and— illustrations .These were then sung at village
gatherings Knowledge was transferred orally. People collectively heard a story,
or saw a performance . Thus a hearing and reading public became intermingled.
3. RELIGIOUS DEBATES AND THE FEAR OF PRINT
Print created the possibility of wide
circulation of ideas, and introduced a new world of— debate and discussion. Even those who disagreed with established
authorities could now print and circulate their— ideas. Eg MartinLuther was a German monk, priest
professor and church reformer. In 1517 he wrote 95 thesis and openely
criticized the rituals and practices of the Roman catholic church.A printed
copy of his thesis was posted on the church door at Wittenberg. It challenged
the church to debate his ideas. Lutherts writings were immediately produced in
large numbersand were read widely. This led to division within the church and
the beginning of the Protestant Reformation.
Q.21 What was the
implication of Print Revolution on Religion?
In 1517, the religious reformer Martin Luther
wrote Ninety Five Theses criticising many— of the practices and rituals of the Roman Catholic Church. A printed copy of this was posted on a church
door in Wittenberg.— It challenged the Church to debate his ideas.— Luther’s
writings were immediately reproduced in vast numbers and read widely. This— lead to a division within the Church and to the
beginning of the Protestant Reformation. The Reading Mania
Q22.Why is it that
in the the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries literacy rates went up in most
parts of Europe?
Churches of different
denominations set up schools in villages, carrying literacy to— peasants and artisans. By the end of the eighteenth
century, in some parts of Europe literacy rates were as high as 60 to 80 per
cent. As literacy and schools spread in
European countries, there was a virtual reading mania.— People wanted
books to read and printers produced books in ever increasing numbers.—
Q.23 What were the new forms of Popular Literature
prevalent in Europe?
New forms of
popular literature appeared in print, targeting new audiences.— Booksellers
employed pedlars who roamed around villages, carrying little books for sale.— There were
almanacs or ritual calendars, along with ballads and folktales. But other— forms of reading matter, largely for entertainment,
began to reach ordinary readers as well. In England, penny chapbooks were carried by
petty pedlars known as chapmen, and sold— for a penny, so that even the poor could buy them. In France, were the ‘Biliotheque Bleue’, which
were low-priced small books printed on— poor quality paper, and bound in cheap blue covers. Then there were the romances, printed on four
to six pages, and the more substantial— ‘histories’ which were stories about the past. Books were of various sizes, serving many
different purposes and interests.— The periodical press developed
from the early eighteenth century, combining information— about current affairs with entertainment. Newspapers and journals carried information
about wars and trade, as well as news of— developments in other places. Similarly, the ideas of scientists and
philosophers now became more accessible to the— common people. Ancient and medieval scientific texts were
compiled and published, and maps and— scientific diagrams were widely printed. When scientists like Isaac
Newton began to publish their discoveries, they could influence a much wider
circle of scientifically minded readers. The writings of thinkers such as Thomas Paine,
Voltaire and Jean Jacques Rousseau were— also widely printed and read. Thus their ideas about science, reason and
rationality found their way into popular— literature. Books – Enlightenment
Q24 Why did some people in the
eighteenth century Europe think that print culture would bring enlightenment
and end despotism?
By the mid-eighteenth century, there was a common conviction
that books were a means of spreading progress and enlightenment. Many believed that books could change the
world, liberate society from despotism and— tyranny, and herald a time when reason and intellect would rule. Louise-Sebastien Mercier, a novelist in
eighteenth-century France, declared: ‘The— printing press is the most powerful engine of progress and public
opinion is the force that will sweep despotism away.’ In many of Mercier’s
novels, the heroes are transformed by acts of reading. They devour books ,are
lost in the world of books and become enlightened in the process, Mercier
proclaimed “Tremble therefore tyrants of the world”Tremble before the virtual
writer.
Q.25 What was the implication of print culture on the French
Revolution?
First: print popularised the
ideas of the Enlightenment thinkers— Collectively, their writings
provided a critical commentary on tradition, superstition and— despotism. They argued for the rule of reason rather than
custom, and demanded that everything be— judged through the application of reason and rationality. They attacked the sacred authority of the
Church and the despotic power of the state, thus— eroding the legitimacy of a social order based on
tradition. The writings of Voltaire and Rousseau were read widely; and those
who read these books saw the world through new eyes, eyes that were
questioning, critical and rational. Second: print created a new culture of
dialogue and debate.— All values, norms and institutions were
re-evaluated and discussed by a public that had— become aware of the power of reason, and recognised
the need to question existing ideas and beliefs. Within this public culture,
new ideas of social revolution came into being. Third: by the 1780s there was an outpouring of
literature that mocked the royalty— and criticised their morality. In the process, it raised questions about the
existing social order.— Cartoons and caricatures typically suggested
that the monarchy remained absorbed only— in sensual pleasures while the common people suffered immense
hardships. This literature circulated underground and led to the growth of
hostile sentiments against the monarchy.
Q.26 What was the impact of the Print
Revolution on children, women and workers? CHILDREN As primary education became compulsory from
the late nineteenth century, children— became an important category of readers. Production of school textbooks became critical
for the publishing industry.— A children’s press, devoted to literature for
children alone, was set up in France in 1857.— This press published new works as well as old fairy
tales and folk tales. The Grimm Brothers
in Germany spent years compiling traditional folk tales gathered— from peasants. What they collected was edited before
the stories were published in a collection in 1812. Anything that was considered unsuitable for
children or would appear vulgar to the elites,— was not included in the published version. Rural folk tales thus acquired a new form. In
this way, print recorded old tales but also— changed them WOMEN Penny
magazines were especially meant for women, as were manuals teaching proper— behaviour and housekeeping. When novels began to be written in the
nineteenth century, women were seen as— important readers. Some of the best known novelists were women: Jane
Austen, the Bronte sisters, George Eliot Their writings became important in defining a
new type of woman: a person with will,— strength of personality, determination and the power to think Literacy
– Workers Lending libraries had been in
existence from the seventeenth century onwards.— In the
nineteenth century, lending libraries in England became instruments for
educating— white-collar workers, artisans and lower-middle-class
people. Sometimes, self-educated working
class people wrote for themselves.— After the working day was
gradually shortened from the mid-nineteenth century, workers had— some time for self-improvement and self-expression. They wrote political tracts and
autobiographies in large numbers.—
Q27 What were the innovations in Print technology after the 18th
century?
By the late eighteenth
century, the press came to be made out of metal. Through the— nineteenth century, there were a series of further
innovations in printing technology. By
the mid-nineteenth century, Richard M. Hoe of New York had perfected the
power driven— cylindrical press. This was capable of printing 8,000
sheets per hour. This press was particularly useful for printing newspapers. In the late nineteenth century, the offset
press was developed which could print up to six— colours at a time. From the turn of the twentieth century,
electrically operated presses accelerated printing— operations. A series of other developments followed. Methods of feeding paper improved, the quality
of plates became better, automatic paper— reels and photoelectric controls of the colour register were
introduced. The accumulation of several
individual mechanical improvements transformed the— appearance of printed texts.
India and the World of
Print CASE STUDY INDIA
Q1. What were the important features of manuscripts in
ancient India?
India had a very rich and
old tradition of handwritten manuscripts – in Sanskrit, Arabic,— Persian, as well as in various vernacular languages. Manuscripts were copied on palm leaves or on
handmade paper.— Pages were sometimes beautifully illustrated.
They would be either pressed between— wooden covers or sewn together to ensure preservation. Manuscripts continued to be produced till well
after the introduction of print, down to the— late nineteenth century.
Q2. What were the limitations of manuscript
in ancient India?
Manuscripts, however,
were highly expensive and fragile.— They had to be handled
carefully, and they could not be read easily as the script was— written in different styles. So manuscripts were not
widely used in everyday life. Even
though pre-colonial Bengal had developed an extensive network of village primary— schools, students very often did not read texts. They
only learnt to write. Teachers dictated
portions of texts from memory and students wrote them down.— Many thus
became literate without ever actually reading any kinds of texts.— Print Comes to India Q3.Give examples of the early
books that were printed in India?
The
printing press first came to Goa with Portuguese missionaries in the
mid-sixteenth— century. Jesuit priests learnt Konkani and printed
several tracts. By 1674, about 50 books had been— printed in the Konkani and in Kanara languages. Catholic priests printed the first Tamil book
in 1579 at Cochin, and in 1713 the first— Malayalam book was printed by them. By 1710, Dutch Protestant
missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts, many of them translations of older
works. Printing – Colonial Influence
Q4.Briefly describe the colonial influence
on printing in India with the help of examples.
From 1780, James Augustus Hickey began to edit
the Bengal Gazette, a weekly magazine— that described itself as ‘a commercial paper open to all, but
influenced by none’. So it was private English enterprise, proud of its
independence from colonial influence, that began English printing in India. Hickey published a lot of advertisements,
including those that related to the import and— sale of slaves. But he also published a lot of gossip
about the Company’s senior officials in India. Enraged by this,
Governor-General Warren Hastings persecuted Hickey, and encouraged the
publication of officially sanctioned newspapers that could counter the flow of
information that damaged the image of the colonial government. By the close of the eighteenth century, a
number of newspapers and journals appeared in— print. There
were Indians, too, who began to publish Indian newspapers.— The first to
appear was the weekly Bengal Gazette, brought out by Gangadhar— Bhattacharya, who was close to Rammohun Roy.
Q5.What
were the implications of Print culture on the religious reforms in India? From the early nineteenth century, there were
intense debates around religious issues.— Different groups confronted the
changes happening within colonial society in different— ways, and offered a variety of new interpretations of
the beliefs of different religions. Some
criticised existing practices and campaigned for reform, while others countered
the— arguments of reformers. These debates were carried
out in public and in print. Printed
tracts and newspapers not only spread the new ideas, but they shaped the nature— of the debate. A wider public could now participate
in these public discussions and express their views. New ideas emerged through these clashes of
opinions.— This was a
time of intense controversies between social and religious reformers and the— Hindu orthodoxy over matters like widow immolation,
monotheism, Brahmanical priesthood and idolatry. In Bengal, as the debate
developed, tracts and newspapers proliferated, circulating a variety of
arguments. To reach a wider audience,
the ideas were printed in the everyday, spoken language of— ordinary people. Rammohun Roy published the Sambad
Kaumudi from 1821 and the Hindu orthodoxy commissioned the Samachar Chandrika
to oppose his opinions. From 1822, two Persian newspapers were published,
Jam-i-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar. In the same year, a Gujarati newspaper,
the Bombay Samachar, made its appearance.
Q6. Why did the Muslim clergy want to
introduce religious reforms in Islam?
In
north India, the ulama were deeply anxious about the collapse of Muslim
dynasties.— They feared
that colonial rulers would encourage conversion, change the Muslim— personal laws. To counter this, they used cheap lithographic
presses, published Persian and Urdu— translations of holy scriptures, and printed religious newspapers and
tracts. The Deoband Seminary, founded in
1867, published thousands upon thousands of fatwas— telling Muslim readers how to conduct themselves in
their everyday lives, and explaining the meanings of Islamic doctrines.
Q7 What
were the implications of Print culture among the Hindus?
Among Hindus, too, print encouraged the
reading of religious texts, especially in the— vernacular languages. The first printed edition of the
Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas, a sixteenth-century text,— came out from Calcutta in 1810. By the mid-nineteenth
century, cheap lithographic editions flooded north Indian markets. From the 1880s, the Naval Kishore Press at
Lucknow and the Shri Venkateshwar Press in— Bombay published numerous religious texts in vernaculars. In their
printed and portable form, these could be read easily by the faithful at any
place and time. They could also be read
out to large groups of illiterate men and women.— New Forms of Publication such things.
Q8:What was the
effect of print technology on new visual culture?
With the setting up of an increasing number of
printing presses, visual images could be— easily reproduced in multiple copies. Painters like Raja Ravi Varma produced images
for mass circulation.— Cheap prints and calendars, easily available
in the bazaar, could be bought even by the— poor to decorate the walls of their homes or places of work. These prints began shaping popular ideas about
modernity and tradition, religion and— politics, and society and culture. Caricatures and Cartoons By the 1870s, caricatures and cartoons were
being published in journals and newspapers,— commenting on social and political issues. Some caricatures ridiculed the educated
Indians’ fascination with Western tastes and— clothes, while others expressed the fear of social change. There were imperial caricatures lampooning
nationalists, as well as nationalist cartoons— criticizing imperial rule.
Q09:What was
the impact of print on women in India?
Since social reforms and novels had
already created a great interest in women’s lives and emotions, there was also
an interest in what women would have to say about their own lives. From the 1860s, a few Bengali women like
Kailashbashini Debi wrote books highlighting— the experiences of women – about how women were imprisoned at home,
kept in ignorance, forced to do hard domestic labour and treated unjustly by
the very people they served. In the
1880s, in present-day Maharashtra, Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai wrote— with passionate anger about the miserable lives of
upper-caste Hindu women, especially widows. In the early twentieth century, journals,
written for and sometimes edited by women,— became extremely popular. They
discussed issues like women’s education, widowhood, widow remarriage and the— national movement. Some of them offered household and fashion
lessons to women and brought—
entertainment through short stories and serialised novels. Liberal husbands nd fthers begn educting their
womenol t homes nd sent them to—
schools when the women schoos opened up.
Q10:How did Print technology effect the
folk literature?
In Punjab, too, a
similar folk literature was widely printed from the early twentieth— century. Ram
Chaddha published the fast-selling Istri Dharm Vichar to teach women how to be— obedient wives. The Khalsa Tract Society published cheap
booklets with a similar message. Many of— these were in the form of dialogues about the qualities of a good
woman. In Bengal, an entire area in
central Calcutta – the Battala – was devoted to the printing of— popular books. Here you could buy cheap editions of
religious tracts and scriptures, as well as literature that was considered
obscene and scandalous. By the late
nineteenth century, a lot of these books were being profusely illustrated with— woodcuts and coloured lithographs. Pedlars took the
Battala publications to homes, enabling women to read them in their leisure
time.
Q11.What was the impact of print on workers in the
factories?
Workers in factories were too overworked and lacked the education to
write much about their experiences. Kashibaba, a Kanpur millworker, wrote and
published Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal in— 1938 to show the links between caste and class exploitation. The poems of another Kanpur millworker, who
wrote under the name of Sudarshan— Chakr between 1935 and 1955, were brought together and published in a
collection called Sacchi Kavitayan. By
the 1930s, Bangalore cotton millworkers set up libraries to educate themselves,— following the example of Bombay workers. These were sponsored by social reformers who
tried to restrict excessive drinking among— them, to bring literacy and, sometimes, to propagate the message of
nationalism.
Q12. How British brought censorship in India?
Print and Censorship Before
1798, the colonial state under the East India Company was not too concerned
with— censorship. Strangely, its early measures to control
printed matter were directed against Englishmen in India who were critical of
Company misrule and hated the actions of particular Company officers. The Company was worried that such criticisms
might be used by its critics in England to— attack its trade monopoly in India. By the 1820s, the Calcutta Supreme Court
passed certain regulations to control press— freedom and the Company began encouraging publication of newspapers
that would celebrate British rule. In
1835, faced with urgent petitions by editors of English and vernacular
newspapers,— Governor-General Bentinck agreed to revise press
laws. Thomas Macaulay, a liberal colonial official, formulated new rules that
restored the earlier freedoms. After the Revolt of 1857 which prompted the
British government to curb the freedom of the Indian press and what steps did it
take to achieve this aim/ After the
revolt of 1857, the attitude to freedom of the press changed. Enraged— Englishmen demanded a clamp down on the ‘native’
press. As vernacular newspapers became assertively nationalist, the colonial
government began debating measures of stringent control.
Q13: Write about the STEPS TAKEN BY THE
BRITISH to make censorship successful in India.
In 1878, the Vernacular Press
Act was passed, modeled on the Irish Press Laws.— It provided
the government with extensive rights to censor reports and editorials in the— vernacular press. From now on the government kept regular track
of the vernacular newspapers published— in different provinces. When a report was judged as seditious, the
newspaper was warned, and if the warning was ignored, the press was liable to
be seized and the printing machinery confiscated.
Q14:Explain how the print culture led to the the growth of Nationalism in India?
Despite repressive measures, nationalist newspapers grew in numbers in all
parts of India. They reported on
colonial misrule and encouraged nationalist activities.— Attempts to
throttle nationalist criticism provoked militant protest.— This in turn
led to a renewed cycle of persecution and protests.— When Punjab
revolutionaries were deported in 1907, Balgangadhar Tilak wrote with— great sympathy about them in his Kesari. This led to
his imprisonment in 1908, provoking in turn widespread protests all over India.
GLOSSARY
Define the following words:-
a.) Calligraphy- The art
of beautiful and stylized writing.
b.) Vellum- A parchment made from the skin
of animals.
c.)Platen- In letterpress printing, platen is a board which is
pressed onto the back of the paper to get the impression from the type. At one
time it used to be a wooden board; later it is made of the steel.
d.)
Compositor- The person who composes the text for printing.
e.) Galley- Metal
frame in which types are laid and the text composed.
f.) Ballad- A historical
account or folk tale in verse, usually sung or recited.
g.) Taverns- Places where
people gathered to drink alcohol, to be served food, and to meet friends and
exchange news.
h.) Protestant Reformations- A sixteenth- century movement to
reform the Catholic Church dominated by Rome. Martin Luther was one of the main
Protestant reformers. Several traditions of anti- Catholic Christianity
developed out of the movement.
i.) Inquisition- A former Roman Catholic court
for identifying and punishing heretics. j.) Heretical- Beliefs which do not
follow the accepted teachings of the Church. In medieval times, heresy was seen
as a threat to the right of the Church to decide on what should be believed and
what should not. Heretical beliefs were severely punished. k.) Satiety- The
state of being fulfilled much beyond the point of satisfaction.
l.) Seditious-
Action, speech or writing that is seen as opposition the government.
m.)
Denominations- Sub groups within a religion.
n.) Almanac- An annual publication
giving astronomical data, information about the movements of the sun and moon,
timing of full tides and eclipses, and much else that was of importance in the
everyday life of people.
o.) Chapbook- A term used to describe pocket- size
books that are sold by traveling pedlars called chapmen. These became popular
from the time of the sixteenth- century print revolution.
p.) Despotism- A
system of governance in which absolute power is exercised by an individual,
unregulated by legal and constitutional checks.
q.) Ulama- Legal scholars of
Islam and the sharia (a body of Islamic law).
r.) Fatwa- A legal pronouncement
on Islamic law usually given by a mufti (legal scholar) to clarify issues on
which the law is uncertain.
CLASS ASSIGNMENT
Note: The following questions
should be done in the note books .-
(a) Woodblock print only came to Europe after 1295.
(b) Martin Luther was in favour of print and spoke out in praise of it.
(c) The Roman Catholic Church began keeping an Index of Prohibited books from the mid-sixteenth century.
(d) Gandhi said the fight for Swaraj is a fight for liberty of speech, liberty of the press, and freedom of association.
Answer
(a)Woodblock print was invented around the sixth century in China. It came to Europe, along with Marco Polo, in 1295. Marco Polo returned to Italy after many years of exploration in China, and he brought the knowledge of woodblock print with him on his return.
(b) Through the publications of his protestant ideas, Martin Luther challenged the orthodox practices and rituals of the Roman Catholic Church. He wrote 95 theses criticizing many of the practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Luther’s writings were immediately reproduced in vast numbers and read widely. This led to a division within the church and to the beginning of the Protestant Reformation. He also translated the New Testament of which 5000 copies were sold within a few days. These were impossible without the printing technology. Deeply grateful to the print, Luther said, “Printing is the ultimate gift of God and the greatest one.”
This is the reason why Luther was in favour of print and spoke out in praise of it.
(c) The Roman Catholic Church had to face many dissents from mid-16th century onwards. People had written many books that interpreted the God and the creation in their own ways or as they liked. Therefore, the church banned such books and kept the record of such banned books. It was called the Index of Prohibited Books.
(d) Gandhi considered that the liberty of speech, liberty of press and freedom of association were three most powerful vehicles of expressing and cultivating public opinion. Therefore, he said the fight for Swaraj was a fight for liberty of speech, press, and freedom for association.
2. Write short notes to show what you know about:
(a) The Gutenberg Press
(b) Erasmus's idea of the printed book
(c) The Vernacular Press Act
Answer
(a) The Gutenberg Press: The first printing press was developed by Johan Gutenberg in 1430s. It was a developed form of the olive and wine presses. By 1448 Gutenberg perfected this system. The lead moulds were used for casting the metal types for the letters of alphabet. The first book he printed was Bible. He produced 180 copies of Bible in 3 years, which was much faster by standards of the time, at the time.
(b) Erasmus’s idea of printed book: Erasmus was the Latin scholar and a Catholic reformer. He criticized the printing of books. He thought that most of the books are stupid, ignorant, scandalous, raving, irreligious and seditious. According to him such books devalue the valuable books.
(c) The Vernacular Press Act: Modeled on the Irish Press Laws, it was passed in 1878. This law gave the government tyrannical rights to censor reports and editorials in the vernacular press. If a seditious report was published and the newspaper did not heed to an initial warning, then the press was seized and the printing machinery confiscated. This was a complete violation of the freedom of expression.
3. What did the spread of print culture in nineteenth century India mean to:
(a) Women
(b) The poor
(c) Reformers
Answer
(a) The spread of print culture in 19th century India benefited Indian women through learning and education. The liberal families supported the education of women to study or read as they believed education and reading would make the women corrupt. This led to the counter reaction, as most of the oppressed women began to study and read books and learnt writing in secrecy. Some literate women started to write books and their autobiographies. Rashasundari Devi, a young married girl wrote her autobiography “Amar Jiban” which was published in 1876. Overall, the print culture in 19th century India helped in spread of the feeling of self-reliance among Indian women.
(b) The poor people benefited from the spread of print culture because of the availability of books at a low price. The readership among them increased due to the publication of low priced books. Public libraries were also set up from the early 19th century, expanding the access to the books where all people could gain knowledge. Encouraged and inspired by the social reformers, the people like factory workers too set up their libraries and some even wrote books. Kashibaba, a Kanpur mill worker wrote and published ‘Chote aur Bade Ka Sawal’.
(c) Indian reforms of 19th century utilized print culture as the most potent means of spreading their reformist ideas and highlight the unethical issues. They began publishing various vernacular and English and Hindi newspapers and books through which they could spread their opinions against widow immolation, child marriage, monotheism, Brahmanical priesthood and idolatry to the common people of the country. In this way the spread of print culture in the 19th century provided them a space for attacking religious orthodoxy and to spread modern social and political ideas to the people of different languages across the country.
Discuss
1. Why did some people in 18th century Europe think that print culture would bring enlightenment and end despotism?
Answer
Many people in the 18th century Europe thought that the print culture has the power in it to bring enlightenment and end despotism. This would help in spreading of literacy and knowledge among all class of people. Social reformers like Louise, Sebastian Mercier, and Martin Luther felt that the print culture is the most powerful engine of progress and public opinion and hence, it would definitely bring enlightenment and an end to despotism.
2. Why did some people fear the effect of easily available printed books? Choose one example from Europe and one from India.
Answer
Some people especially from upper class and powerful class feared the effect of easily available printed books. Their cause of fear was that due to the spread of literacy among the common people they may loose their position or authorities. Some people feared that this may lead to the spread of rebellions and irreligious thoughts. For example -
→ In Europe, the Roman Catholic Church tried to curb the printed books through the Index of Prohibited Books.
→ In India, the Vernacular Press Act imposed restrictions on Indian press and various local newspapers. Also, some religious leaders and some people from upper castes expressed their fear.
4. What were the effects of the spread of print culture for poor people in nineteenth century India?
Answer
The effects of the spread of print culture for poor people in nineteenth century India were:
→ The poor people benefited from the spread of print culture in India on account of the availability of low-price books and public libraries.
→ Enlightening essays were written against caste discrimination and its inherent injustices. These were read by people across the country.
→ On the encouragement and support of social reformers, over-worked factory workers set up libraries for self-education, and some of them even published their own works, for example, Kashibaba and his "Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal".
5. Explain how print culture assisted the growth of nationalism in India.
Answer
The print culture immensely helped the growth in the growth of nationalism in India in the following ways -
→ Through vernacular press, oppressive methods of colonial rule were reported.
→ The misrule of government and its initiative on curbing the freedom of press spread the nationalist ideas that demanded freedom of press.
→ Nationalist feelings and revolutionary ideas were secretly spread by the dailies like - The Amrit Bazar Patrika, The Indian Mirror, Kesri, The Hindu, Bombay Samachar etc. Through these newspapers national leaders always tried to mobilize public opinion of Indian masses and unite them for the cause of nationalism.
→ The print culture helped in educating the people who then started to be gradually influenced by the reformist and nationalist ideas of the various Indian leaders like Raja Ram Mohun Roy, Tilak, Subhas Bose and Gandhiji etc.
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